Loan Words and Borrowings: English ЕГЭ 2025 Preparation

Understanding loan words and borrowings is essential for appreciating the rich tapestry of the English language. This guide will help you recognize words that English has adopted from other languages, understand how they have been integrated, and appreciate the historical and cultural contexts that have shaped English vocabulary. This knowledge will enhance your vocabulary skills and cultural awareness for the ЕГЭ English exam.

Theory for Exam Preparation

English is often described as a "borrowing language" because throughout its history, it has adopted words from numerous other languages. These borrowed words, or loan words, make up a significant portion of English vocabulary—by some estimates, over 60% of English words have been borrowed from other languages. Understanding the origins of English words can help you recognize patterns in spelling, pronunciation, and meaning, which can in turn help you deduce the meanings of unfamiliar words. In the ЕГЭ English exam, you may encounter texts that contain loan words from various languages, particularly in passages about history, culture, cuisine, science, or international relations. This guide will explore the major sources of loan words in English, the historical periods of borrowing, the ways in which borrowed words are adapted, and the impact of borrowing on English vocabulary. By familiarizing yourself with common loan words and their origins, you will be better equipped to understand and use a wider range of English vocabulary.

Understanding Loan Words and Borrowings

What Are Loan Words?

Loan words (also called borrowings) are words adopted from one language and incorporated into another language without translation. These words become part of the vocabulary of the recipient language. English has borrowed words from over 50 different languages, making it one of the most lexically diverse languages in the world.

Why Languages Borrow Words

• Need for new concepts: When a language encounters a new concept, object, or idea from another culture, it often adopts the foreign word along with it
• Prestige: Words may be borrowed from languages associated with high culture, education, or social status
• Efficiency: Sometimes a foreign word expresses a concept more concisely or precisely than existing words in the recipient language
• Cultural contact: Trade, conquest, migration, and other forms of cultural exchange facilitate language borrowing
• Technological and scientific advancement: New technologies and scientific discoveries often bring new terminology

Types of Borrowings

Direct Borrowings

Words adopted from another language with minimal change.

Examples:

• Café (French): A small restaurant serving light meals and drinks
• Kindergarten (German): A school or class for young children
• Piano (Italian): A musical instrument
• Tsunami (Japanese): A large ocean wave caused by an underwater earthquake

Calques (Loan Translations)

Direct translations of foreign expressions, where each element is translated literally.

Examples:

• Skyscraper (from German "Wolkenkratzer" - cloud scraper)
• Masterpiece (from Dutch "meesterstuk")
• Superman (from German "Übermensch")
• Flea market (from French "marché aux puces")

Semantic Loans

When an existing word in the recipient language acquires a new meaning based on its equivalent in another language.

Examples:

• Mouse (computing term, from metaphorical use in multiple languages)
• Web (internet term, metaphorical extension found in many languages)
• Realize (in the sense of "to become aware," influenced by French "réaliser")
• Propaganda (originally neutral, acquired negative connotations)

Hybrid Loans

Words formed by combining elements from different languages.

Examples:

• Television (Greek "tele" + Latin "vision")
• Automobile (Greek "auto" + Latin "mobilis")
• Speedometer (English "speed" + Greek "metron")
• Bureaucracy (French "bureau" + Greek "kratos")

Major Sources of English Loan Words

Latin

Latin has had a profound influence on English vocabulary, particularly in the domains of law, religion, science, and education.

French

French has contributed extensively to English vocabulary, especially in the areas of cuisine, fashion, art, and government.

Greek

Greek has influenced English vocabulary primarily in the fields of science, medicine, philosophy, and technology.

German

German has contributed words to English in areas such as psychology, geology, and food.

Spanish

Spanish has contributed words to English particularly in the areas of food, geography, and culture.

Italian

Italian has influenced English vocabulary particularly in the domains of music, art, and cuisine.

Japanese

Japanese has contributed words to English in areas such as martial arts, cuisine, and business practices.

Arabic

Arabic has contributed words to English in fields such as mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry.

Hindi and Urdu

Hindi and Urdu have contributed words to English particularly in the areas of clothing, food, and culture.

Historical Periods of Borrowing

Old English Period (450-1066)

During this period, English borrowed words primarily from Latin (through Christianity) and Old Norse (through Viking invasions).

Examples of Latin borrowings:

• Angel (angelus)
• Bishop (episcopus)
• Church (ecclesia)
• School (schola)

Examples of Old Norse borrowings:

• Egg (egg)
• Husband (húsbóndi)
• Law (lag)
• Sky (sky)

Middle English Period (1066-1500)

The Norman Conquest in 1066 led to a massive influx of French words into English.

Examples of French borrowings:

• Government (gouvernement)
• Justice (justice)
• Parliament (parlement)
• Royal (royal)

Renaissance Period (1500-1650)

During the Renaissance, English borrowed extensively from Latin and Greek, particularly for scientific, philosophical, and literary terms.

Examples of Latin and Greek borrowings:

• Atmosphere (Greek: atmos + sphaira)
• Encyclopedia (Greek: enkyklios + paideia)
• Radius (Latin: radius)
• Temperature (Latin: temperatura)

Colonial Period (1650-1900)

British colonialism led to borrowings from languages around the world.

Examples of colonial borrowings:

• Boomerang (Australian Aboriginal)
• Jungle (Hindi)
• Safari (Arabic via Swahili)
• Taboo (Tongan)

Modern Period (1900-present)

Globalization, technology, and cultural exchange have led to continued borrowing from various languages.

Examples of modern borrowings:

• Emoji (Japanese)
• Glasnost (Russian)
• Paparazzi (Italian)
• Tsunami (Japanese)

Adaptation of Loan Words

Phonological Adaptation

When words are borrowed, their pronunciation often changes to fit the sound system of the recipient language.

Examples:

• Ballet (French [balɛ] → English [ˈbæleɪ])
• Karaoke (Japanese [kaɾaoke] → English [ˌkæriˈoʊki])
• Pizza (Italian [ˈpittsa] → English [ˈpiːtsə])
• Schadenfreude (German [ˈʃaːdnˌfʁɔʏ̯də] → English [ˈʃɑːdənˌfrɔɪdə])

Morphological Adaptation

Borrowed words may be adapted to fit the grammatical patterns of the recipient language.

Examples:

• Spaghetti (Italian plural → treated as singular in English)
• Tsunami (Japanese no plural → English plural "tsunamis")
• Kindergartens (German singular "Kindergarten" → English plural with -s)
• Pizzas (Italian singular "pizza" → English plural with -s)

Semantic Adaptation

The meaning of borrowed words may change in the recipient language.

Examples:

• Entrée (in French, it means "starter"; in American English, it means "main course")
• Brave (from French "brave" meaning "courageous" or "excellent"; in English, it primarily means "courageous")
• Chef (in French, it means "chief" or "head"; in English, it specifically means "professional cook")
• Angst (in German, it means "fear"; in English, it often implies a more specific type of anxiety or dread)

Orthographic Adaptation

The spelling of borrowed words may be adapted to conform to the orthographic conventions of the recipient language.

Examples:

• Center (from French "centre")
• Check (from French "chèque")
• Fantasy (from Greek "phantasia")
• Yogurt (from Turkish "yoğurt")

Impact of Borrowing on English Vocabulary

Synonyms and Near-Synonyms

Borrowing has created many synonyms or near-synonyms in English, often with subtle differences in meaning, register, or connotation.

Register and Style

Words of different origins often belong to different registers or styles in English.

• Germanic words tend to be more informal, everyday, and concrete
• Latin and Greek words tend to be more formal, academic, and abstract
• French words often relate to sophisticated culture, cuisine, and fashion

Examples of register differences:

• "Ask" (Germanic) vs. "Inquire" (Latin)
• "Buy" (Germanic) vs. "Purchase" (French)
• "Sweat" (Germanic) vs. "Perspire" (Latin)
• "Belly" (Germanic) vs. "Abdomen" (Latin)

Technical and Specialized Vocabulary

Many technical and specialized terms in English are borrowed from other languages.

• Medical terminology: Largely from Greek and Latin (e.g., "cardiology," "pediatrics")
• Legal terminology: Largely from Latin and French (e.g., "alibi," "plaintiff")
• Scientific terminology: Largely from Greek and Latin (e.g., "photosynthesis," "quantum")
• Culinary terminology: From various languages (e.g., "sushi" from Japanese, "pasta" from Italian)

Cultural Enrichment

Loan words often bring cultural concepts that enrich the expressive capacity of English.

Examples:

• Hygge (Danish): A quality of coziness and comfortable conviviality
• Schadenfreude (German): Pleasure derived from another person's misfortune
• Déjà vu (French): The feeling of having already experienced a current situation
• Wabi-sabi (Japanese): Finding beauty in imperfection

Recognizing Loan Words

Orthographic Clues

Certain spelling patterns can indicate the origin of a word.

• French: Words ending in -age, -ette, -ique, -eau (e.g., "garage," "silhouette," "technique," "bureau")
• Latin: Words ending in -um, -us, -tion (e.g., "curriculum," "status," "education")
• Greek: Words containing ph, ch (pronounced /k/), y (e.g., "philosophy," "chorus," "psychology")
• Spanish: Words ending in -ista, -illo, -ada (e.g., "barista," "armadillo," "armada")

Phonological Clues

Certain sound patterns can indicate the origin of a word.

• French: Stress on the final syllable (e.g., "ballet," "café")
• Japanese: Consonant-vowel pattern (e.g., "karaoke," "tsunami")
• German: Combinations like sch-, -tz (e.g., "schadenfreude," "pretzel")
• Italian: Doubled consonants (e.g., "pizza," "cappuccino")

Semantic Clues

The meaning or semantic field of a word can provide clues to its origin.

• Food terms: Often from the cuisine's country of origin (e.g., "sushi" from Japanese, "pasta" from Italian)
• Scientific terms: Often from Greek or Latin (e.g., "biology," "quantum")
• Fashion terms: Often from French or Italian (e.g., "chic," "stiletto")
• Music terms: Often from Italian (e.g., "allegro," "soprano")

Loan Words in the ЕГЭ English Exam

Reading Comprehension

Understanding loan words can help you in the reading section by:

• Recognizing cognates between English and other languages you may know
• Inferring the meaning of unfamiliar words based on their origin
• Understanding cultural references in texts
• Appreciating the nuances of register and style

Writing Tasks

Knowledge of loan words can enhance your writing by:

• Providing a wider vocabulary to express precise meanings
• Allowing you to adjust your register appropriately for different contexts
• Demonstrating cultural awareness and sophistication
• Helping you avoid false friends (words that look similar in different languages but have different meanings)

Common Exam Topics Related to Loan Words

• Cultural exchange and globalization
• Food and cuisine from around the world
• Travel and tourism
• Art, music, and literature
• Science and technology
• History and historical influences

Practice Examples

Key Points to Remember

• English is a borrowing language: Over 60% of English vocabulary comes from other languages.
• Major sources: Latin, French, Greek, German, Spanish, Italian, Japanese, Arabic, and Hindi/Urdu have all contributed significantly to English vocabulary.
• Historical periods: Different historical periods saw borrowings from different languages, reflecting cultural, political, and social influences.
• Adaptation: Loan words undergo phonological, morphological, semantic, and orthographic adaptation when they enter English.
• Register differences: Words of Germanic origin tend to be more informal and concrete, while Latin and Greek words tend to be more formal and abstract.
• Recognition clues: Spelling patterns, sound patterns, and semantic fields can help identify the origin of words.
• Cultural enrichment: Loan words often bring unique cultural concepts that enrich the expressive capacity of English.