Word formation is the process of creating new words from existing ones. Understanding the principles of word formation is essential for the ЕГЭ English exam, as it helps expand your vocabulary and improve your ability to comprehend and use English words correctly. This guide will help you master the main word formation processes in English.
In English, new words can be formed through various processes, including affixation (adding prefixes and suffixes), compounding (combining two or more words), conversion (changing a word's part of speech without changing its form), and other methods. Mastering these processes will help you recognize and create new words, which is crucial for achieving a high score in the ЕГЭ English exam, particularly in the vocabulary and reading comprehension sections.
Affixation is the process of adding affixes (prefixes or suffixes) to a base word to create a new word with a different meaning or function.
Prefixes are added to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning. Here are some common prefixes in English:
| Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| un- | not, opposite of | unhappy, unable, unfair |
| dis- | not, opposite of | disagree, dislike, dishonest |
| in-, im-, il-, ir- | not, opposite of | inactive, impossible, illegal, irregular |
| re- | again, back | rewrite, return, rebuild |
| pre- | before | prehistoric, preview, prepay |
| post- | after | postwar, postgraduate, postpone |
| anti- | against, opposing | antiwar, antisocial, antibacterial |
| auto- | self | autobiography, automatic, autopilot |
| bi- | two | bilingual, bicycle, biannual |
| co- | together, with | cooperate, coexist, coauthor |
| de- | remove, reduce | deactivate, defrost, devalue |
| ex- | former | ex-husband, ex-president, ex-employee |
| inter- | between | international, interact, interchange |
| mid- | middle | midday, midnight, mid-October |
| mis- | wrongly | misunderstand, misinform, misplace |
| multi- | many | multicultural, multimedia, multilingual |
| non- | not | nonsense, non-smoking, non-fiction |
| over- | too much | overeat, overwork, overreact |
| semi- | half | semicircle, semifinal, semi-detached |
| sub- | under | submarine, subway, subconscious |
| super- | above, beyond | superhuman, supermarket, supernatural |
| trans- | across, beyond | transport, translate, transform |
| under- | too little, beneath | underestimate, underground, underweight |
The choice of the negative prefix (un-, dis-, in-, etc.) often depends on the origin of the word:
- Words of Germanic origin often take un- (unhappy, unable)
- Words of Latin origin often take in- (inactive, invisible)
- The prefix in- changes to im- before words beginning with b, m, or p (impossible, immature, impatient)
- The prefix in- changes to il- before words beginning with l (illegal, illegible)
- The prefix in- changes to ir- before words beginning with r (irregular, irresponsible)
Suffixes are added to the end of a word to change its part of speech or modify its meaning. Here are some common suffixes in English:
| Suffix | Meaning/Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| -er, -or | person who does something | teacher, actor, writer |
| -ist | person who does something | artist, scientist, pianist |
| -ian | person who does something | musician, politician, librarian |
| -ment | state or result | development, agreement, enjoyment |
| -tion, -sion | state or quality | education, decision, confusion |
| -ity, -ty | state or quality | activity, reality, cruelty |
| -ness | state or quality | happiness, kindness, darkness |
| -ance, -ence | state or quality | importance, difference, existence |
| -ship | state or condition | friendship, relationship, leadership |
| -dom | state or condition | freedom, kingdom, wisdom |
| -hood | state or condition | childhood, neighborhood, brotherhood |
| -ism | belief or system | capitalism, tourism, optimism |
| -ist | believer or practitioner | capitalist, tourist, optimist |
| Suffix | Meaning/Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| -able, -ible | capable of being | readable, flexible, possible |
| -al | relating to | national, musical, natural |
| -ful | full of | beautiful, careful, helpful |
| -ic | relating to | economic, historic, scientific |
| -ive | tending to | active, creative, attractive |
| -less | without | homeless, careless, useless |
| -ous | full of | dangerous, famous, nervous |
| -y | characterized by | rainy, sunny, funny |
| -ly | in the manner of | friendly, lively, lovely |
| -ish | somewhat like | childish, reddish, selfish |
| Suffix | Meaning/Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| -ize, -ise | make or become | realize, modernize, apologize |
| -ate | make or become | activate, create, educate |
| -ify | make or become | simplify, clarify, beautify |
| -en | make or become | strengthen, widen, soften |
| Suffix | Meaning/Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| -ly | in the manner of | quickly, carefully, happily |
| -ward(s) | in the direction of | forward(s), backward(s), upward(s) |
| -wise | in the manner of | clockwise, likewise, otherwise |
Compounding is the process of joining two or more words to create a new word with a meaning that is often different from the meanings of its components.
| Type | Structure | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Compound Nouns | noun + noun adjective + noun verb + noun verb + adverb preposition + noun |
bedroom, blackboard, washing machine, breakdown, underground |
| Compound Adjectives | adjective + adjective noun + adjective adverb + adjective adjective + noun |
bittersweet, duty-free, well-known, red-hot |
| Compound Verbs | noun + verb adjective + verb preposition + verb |
babysit, whitewash, overcome |
| Compound Adverbs | preposition + noun adverb + preposition |
nowadays, thereafter |
| Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Closed Compounds | Written as one word | bedroom, blackboard, underground |
| Hyphenated Compounds | Written with hyphens | mother-in-law, well-known, self-control |
| Open Compounds | Written as separate words | living room, full moon, real estate |
The form of a compound (closed, hyphenated, or open) is not always predictable and may vary between different varieties of English. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.
Conversion, also known as zero derivation, is the process of changing a word's part of speech without changing its form.
| Conversion Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Noun → Verb | bottle (n) → to bottle (v) email (n) → to email (v) hand (n) → to hand (v) |
| Verb → Noun | to walk (v) → a walk (n) to talk (v) → a talk (n) to call (v) → a call (n) |
| Adjective → Verb | clean (adj) → to clean (v) dry (adj) → to dry (v) empty (adj) → to empty (v) |
| Adjective → Noun | rich (adj) → the rich (n) poor (adj) → the poor (n) young (adj) → the young (n) |
Blending is the process of combining parts of two or more words to create a new word.
| Blend | Components |
|---|---|
| brunch | breakfast + lunch |
| smog | smoke + fog |
| motel | motor + hotel |
| podcast | iPod + broadcast |
| Brexit | Britain + exit |
Clipping is the process of shortening a word by removing one or more syllables.
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Back Clipping (removing the end) | advertisement → ad examination → exam laboratory → lab |
| Fore Clipping (removing the beginning) | telephone → phone airplane → plane influenza → flu |
| Middle Clipping (removing the middle) | refrigerator → fridge influenza → flu specifications → specs |
| Complex Clipping (removing multiple parts) | science fiction → sci-fi situation comedy → sitcom mathematics → math/maths |
Acronyms and initialisms are formed from the initial letters of a phrase.
| Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Acronyms | Pronounced as a word | NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) |
| Initialisms | Pronounced as individual letters | BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation) ATM (Automated Teller Machine) |
Back-formation is the process of creating a new word by removing a real or supposed affix from an existing word.
| Original Word | Back-formation |
|---|---|
| editor | to edit |
| television | to televise |
| donation | to donate |
| babysitter | to babysit |
A word family consists of a base word and all its derived forms. Understanding word families can help you expand your vocabulary and recognize related words.
| Base Word | Noun | Verb | Adjective | Adverb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| act | act, action, actor, actress | act, activate | active, inactive | actively |
| beauty | beauty, beautician | beautify | beautiful, beauteous | beautifully |
| create | creation, creator, creativity | create | creative, created | creatively |
| decide | decision, decider | decide | decisive, decided | decisively |
| happy | happiness | - | happy, unhappy | happily |
When adding affixes, the spelling of the base word sometimes changes:
| Rule | Examples |
|---|---|
| Dropping final 'e' | hope + -ing = hoping write + -ing = writing love + -able = lovable |
| Keeping final 'e' | change + -able = changeable courage + -ous = courageous notice + -able = noticeable |
| Doubling final consonant | run + -ing = running stop + -ed = stopped begin + -ing = beginning |
| Changing 'y' to 'i' | happy + -ness = happiness beauty + -ful = beautiful easy + -ly = easily |
| Keeping 'y' | play + -er = player enjoy + -able = enjoyable boy + -ish = boyish |
The final consonant is doubled when:
1. The word has one syllable (stop → stopped)
2. The word has more than one syllable and the stress is on the final syllable (begin → beginning)
3. The word ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel (run → running)
The final consonant is NOT doubled when:
1. The word has more than one syllable and the stress is not on the final syllable (visit → visited)
2. The word ends in more than one consonant (help → helped)
3. The word ends in a consonant preceded by more than one vowel (rain → raining)
Form the correct word from the word in brackets.
Answers:
1. The decision (decide) was made after careful consideration. (noun formed with the suffix -ion)
2. She is a very creative (create) person. (adjective formed with the suffix -ive)
3. The weather was surprisingly (surprise) good for the time of year. (adverb formed with the suffix -ly)
4. His performance (perform) in the play was outstanding. (noun formed with the suffix -ance)
5. The government (govern) has introduced new policies. (noun formed with the suffix -ment)
Add the appropriate prefix to each word to form a word with the opposite meaning.
Answers:
1. impossible (prefix im- is used before words beginning with p)
2. illegal (prefix il- is used before words beginning with l)
3. irregular (prefix ir- is used before words beginning with r)
4. dishonest (prefix dis- is commonly used with this word)
5. disagree (prefix dis- is commonly used with this word)
Identify the word formation process used in each of the following words.
Answers:
1. unhappy - Affixation (adding the prefix un- to the adjective "happy")
2. bedroom - Compounding (combining the nouns "bed" and "room")
3. to text - Conversion (changing the noun "text" to a verb without changing its form)
4. lab - Clipping (shortening the word "laboratory" by removing syllables)
5. brunch - Blending (combining parts of the words "breakfast" and "lunch")
In the ЕГЭ English exam, word formation tasks often require you to change a given word into a different part of speech to fit a sentence. Pay attention to the context to determine whether you need a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. Also, be careful with spelling changes when adding affixes, and remember that some words may require both a prefix and a suffix (e.g., "unhappiness" from "happy").